Variations or Commonalities among Countries? A Data-Driven Approach to Diplomacy

1. Introduction

The global landscape is often framed through a lens of division—whether political, economic, cultural, or ideological (Hooker, 2009). However, understanding commonalities among nations can foster diplomatic relations, enhance cross-border cooperation, and reduce conflict (Hofstede, 2011). At the core of this study is the question: Are nations truly more different than alike? This inquiry gains urgency amid contemporary geopolitical tensions, including the Israel-Gaza and Russia-Ukraine conflicts, where cultural perceptions shape diplomatic strategies and public discourse (Melgar, Rossi, & Smith, 2010). The study draws upon Hofstede’s cultural dimensions framework—Power Distance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-Term Orientation, and Indulgence versus Restraint—to examine cross-cultural similarities and differences (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006). Hofstede's model, widely applied in international business and policy analysis, provides a structured method for comparing national behaviors and governance models (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). Additionally, the study incorporates the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) as a key indicator of governance quality, recognizing its role in shaping national reputations and international trust (Hamilton & Hammer, 2018).

Empirical research has demonstrated strong correlations between cultural dimensions and governance outcomes (Achim, 2016). Studies by Achim (2016) and Seleim & Bontis (2009) suggest that power distance and collectivism influence corruption levels, while individualism and uncertainty avoidance impact transparency and regulatory effectiveness (Dipierro & Rella, 2024). Furthermore, Hooker (2009) argues that corruption manifests differently across cultural systems—what is seen as nepotism in one nation may be viewed as an acceptable relational practice in another (Chandler & Graham, 2010). These findings underscore the complexity of cultural interactions and their implications for diplomacy (Zhou & Kwon, 2020). The increasing role of digital communication in international relations further amplifies the need to understand cultural dynamics (Spry, 2018). Social media and digital platforms have transformed diplomacy, enabling civil society actors to influence global narratives, mobilize movements, and shape political outcomes (Alqarni, 2022). In this context, analyzing commonalities among nations can serve as a foundation for strategic diplomatic engagement and conflict resolution (Leonavičienė & Burinskienė, 2022).

This study therefore employs Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient methodology to assess relationships between cultural dimensions and CPI rankings across Africa, Asia, North America, South America, and Europe (Hamilton & Hammer, 2018). The research aims to empirically validate whether nations exhibit more similarities than differences in cultural and governance structures (Seleim & Bontis, 2009). By identifying shared cultural traits, the study proposes a potential middle ground for diplomacy, economic partnerships, and global governance reforms (Achim, 2016).

2. Literature Review

Spry (2018) addressed the nexus between social media studies and diplomacy studies using original empirical data on the Facebook pages of 8 nations in 22 host nations to analyze this phenomenon using a multi-stage mixed-methods approach using quantifiable engagement data and qualitative content (Spry, 2018). The analysis varies from previous studies by foregrounding social media as a communication environment and including audiences/users as active participants (Hooker, 2009). The findings suggest Facebook diplomacy is more relevant in smaller, poorer, and closer countries (Hofstede, 2011). Spry (2018) analyzed diplomatic communication strategies using engagement patterns on social media platforms to uncover how different countries utilize digital diplomacy (Melgar, Rossi, & Smith, 2010). Spry (2018) employed a multi-stage mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of engagement metrics with qualitative content analysis (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006). Spry's (2018) approach contributes to our understanding of international relations by providing insights into the diverse approaches to diplomatic communication in an increasingly interconnected world (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). Spry (2018) identified variations in how countries embrace social media for political communication, crisis management, and public diplomacy, highlighting differences in cultural norms, government structures, and technological infrastructures (Hamilton & Hammer, 2018). Additionally, the approach acknowledges commonalities among countries in recognizing the potential of social media for shaping global narratives, fostering transnational collaborations, and addressing shared challenges (Achim, 2016). Analyzing data on social media usage, engagement metrics, and diplomatic activities (Spry, 2018) offers insights into the evolving dynamics of international politics in the digital age and informs strategies for effective diplomatic engagement in an interconnected world (Seleim & Bontis, 2009). This perspective aligns with Osiobe et al. (2024), who highlight how cultural dimensions influence global collaboration, and Malallah & Osiobe (2024), who emphasize the significance of shared attributes in fostering diplomatic relations and international cooperation.

3. Methodology

3.1 Data

The dataset used in the study was mined from the following primary sources: the World Bank, World Health Organization, Hofstede Index, and Transparency International. In the study, our variables include Masculinity, Power Distance, Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-Term Orientation, Indulgence, and the Corruption Perception Index (CPI). Each variable applies to every country, and their definitions remain consistent across nations where data is available. A high score in Masculinity indicates that society prioritizes competition, achievement, and success, often defining success by being the "best in the field." Power Distance refers to the degree of power exerted by individuals within a society. Individualism assesses the degree of interdependence maintained among members of a society. Uncertainty Avoidance measures how societies cope with the fact that the future is unpredictable. Long-Term Orientation describes how societies balance their traditions while managing present and future challenges. Indulgence reflects the extent to which people control their desires and impulses. The CPI is the world's most widely used global corruption ranking, measuring how corrupt each country's public sector is perceived to be by experts and business professionals.

Table 1: USMCA Countries

Source: Authors' Calculations

Where:

USMCA is

US = The United States

M = Mexico

CA = Canada

Since the USMCA is made up of only three countries, they were excluded from the broader analysis.

Table 2: Non-USMCA Countries Data Categorization Summarization

Source: Authors' Categorization and Calculation

This discussion relates to the theme of variations and commonalities among countries in diplomacy, as it acknowledges the diverse approaches and perspectives within diplomatic practices, influenced by factors such as historical context, technological advancements, and the evolving role of non-state actors in international relations (Zhou & Kwon, 2020). Understanding these variations is crucial for diplomats seeking to navigate the complexities of modern diplomacy effectively (Alqarni, 2022). The analysis considers how the social movements of individuals intersect with the efforts of civil society organizations and international healthcare initiatives (Leonavičienė & Burinskienė, 2022). The study aims to identify the international network of actors collaborating to address COVID-19 and to analyze communication patterns on Twitter related to this civil society engagement (Hamilton & Hammer, 2018).

3.2 Data Analysis Methods

The study exploits Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (PCC), which is a statistical measure used to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (Achim, 2016). This analysis employs PCC to investigate correlations between variables such as masculinity and individualism across different nations (Hofstede, 2011; Seleim & Bontis, 2009). The PCC values determine whether a strong, weak, or no correlation exists between these variables (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018).

Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (PCC)

The Pearson correlation coefficient  is calculated as (Hamilton & Hammer, 2018):

Alternatively, the base equation for  can be expressed as (Melgar, Rossi, & Smith, 2010):

Where:

 r = Pearson correlation coefficient

xi = individual sample points of variable x

x‾ = mean of variable x

yi = individual sample points of variable y

y‾ = mean of variable y

n = number of data points (Hooker, 2009)

Interpretation of PCC Values

Strong Positive Correlation: 0.5≤r≤1

Strong Negative Correlation: -1≤r≤-0.5

Weak or No Correlation: -0.5<r<0.5

Covariance and Standard Deviation Formulation

Pearson’s correlation coefficient can also be expressed in terms of covariance and standard deviation (Leonavičienė & Burinskienė, 2022):

Where:

Pxy = correlation between variables x and y

σxy = sample covariance between x and y

σx = standard deviation of x

σy = standard deviation of y

The PCC calculations help assess how cultural dimensions influence corruption perception and governance structures across different nations (Chandler & Graham, 2010). By applying these equations, the study quantitatively evaluates the relationships between masculinity, power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, indulgence, and CPI rankings across the sampled countries (Dipierro & Rella, 2024).

4. Results and Analysis

The following section presents the results from the analysis of cultural dimensions and their relationships with the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) across various regions, including South America, Africa, Asia, and Europe. These results are corroborated or negated based on related studies in the literature

4.1 CPI Analysis

4.1.1. South America

Table 1: presents the averages of cultural dimensions across CPI groups in South America.

Source: Authors' Calculations

Figure 1: South American Cultural Dimensions Across CPI Groups

The results in Table 1 and Figure 1 indicate that Masculinity is significantly higher in Medium and Not Good CPI countries (55.33 and 50.63, respectively) compared to Excellent CPI countries (29.00), suggesting that societies with stronger competition-driven values tend to experience higher corruption perception, aligning with Hofstede (2011). Power Distance increases as CPI worsens, rising from 53 in Excellent CPI countries to 85.33 in the Worst CPI category, supporting Hofstede (2011) and Seleim & Bontis (2009), who found that more hierarchical societies tend to have higher corruption levels. Individualism is highest in Medium CPI countries (33.17) but drops significantly in the Not Good and Worst CPI groups (17.00 and 12.67, respectively), partially contradicting Spry (2018), who suggested that lower corruption is associated with greater individualism. Uncertainty Avoidance is highest in Excellent CPI countries (90), indicating that these nations are more structured and resistant to unpredictability, aligning with Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018), who suggested that higher uncertainty avoidance is linked to rigid governance structures. Long-term orientation declines as CPI worsens, dropping from 28.5 in Excellent CPI nations to 16 in the Worst group, suggesting that societies struggling with corruption may prioritize short-term gains over long-term planning. Indulgence is highest in the Worst CPI category (100), showing a strong trend where more corrupt societies have greater tendencies toward gratification and social freedoms, contrasting with findings in Europe where indulgence decreased with higher corruption. These patterns confirm existing cultural frameworks on corruption but highlight regional variations that warrant further research into governance mechanisms and their interactions with cultural values in South America.

4.1.2. Africa

Table 2: presents the averages of cultural dimensions across CPI groups in Africa.

Source: Authors' Calculations

Figure 2: African Cultural Dimensions Across CPI

The results in Table 2 and Figure 2 show that Masculinity is highest in Not Good CPI countries (53.8), compared to 46 in Excellent CPI and 41.67 in Medium CPI countries, suggesting that societies with stronger competition-driven values tend to experience higher corruption perception, aligning with Hofstede (2011). Power Distance is highest in Medium CPI countries (53) but lower in Not Good CPI countries (36), which contradicts findings by Seleim & Bontis (2009) that greater hierarchical structures are usually associated with higher corruption levels. Individualism is highest in Not Good CPI countries (73), diverging from trends in Europe and South America, where greater individualism was typically linked to lower corruption perception. Uncertainty Avoidance remains relatively stable across CPI groups, with only minor variations, suggesting that corruption perception in Africa may not be strongly influenced by a society's tolerance for uncertainty, partially aligning with Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018). Long-Term Orientation is lowest in Medium CPI countries (13.83), indicating that these nations may focus more on short-term economic and political goals rather than long-term development strategies, which echoes findings from Achim (2016). Indulgence is highest in Not Good CPI countries (53.8), suggesting that societies with more corruption may also have more permissive cultural norms, aligning with Melgar, Rossi, & Smith (2010), who found that indulgence can sometimes be linked to weaker governance structures.

4.1.3. Asia

Table 3: presents the averages of cultural dimensions across CPI groups in Asia.

Source: Authors' Calculations

Figure 3: Asian Cultural Dimensions Across CPI

The results in Table 3 and Figure 3 indicate that Masculinity varies across CPI groups, with the highest levels in Worst CPI countries (57.17) and Excellent CPI countries (54.90), while it is lowest in Not Good CPI countries (41.75). This suggests that both highly corrupt and low-corruption societies in Asia tend to have strong competition-driven cultural values, partially aligning with Hofstede (2011) but contradicting the trend observed in South America, where corruption was more strongly associated with high masculinity. Power Distance is highest in Medium and Not Good CPI countries (79.56 and 78.00, respectively), while it is lower in the Worst and Excellent CPI groups (66.00 and 67.39), reinforcing findings from Seleim & Bontis (2009) that hierarchical structures can influence corruption but with variations across corruption levels. Individualism is highest in Excellent CPI countries (43.85) but significantly lower in Medium and Not Good CPI countries (26.89 and 26.50, respectively), suggesting that societies with lower corruption tend to be more individualistic, aligning with Spry (2018) and Achim (2016). Uncertainty Avoidance is highest in Not Good CPI countries (69.33), suggesting that countries with moderate corruption perception may implement more rigid structures to deal with unpredictability, aligning with Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018), who found that higher uncertainty avoidance is linked to stricter governance systems. Long-Term Orientation is highest in Not Good and Medium CPI countries (54.50 and 52.63, respectively), suggesting that these societies may emphasize future planning despite having higher corruption perception, contrasting with trends observed in Africa. Indulgence is lowest in Worst CPI countries (23.25) and highest in Medium CPI countries (37.13), indicating that more corrupt societies in Asia may have stricter cultural norms regarding gratification and enjoyment, which differs from findings in South America, where indulgence was highest in the most corrupt countries.

4.1.4. Europe

Table 4: presents the averages of cultural dimensions across CPI groups in Europe.

Source: Authors' Calculations

Figure 4: South American Cultural Dimensions Across CPI

The results in Table 4 and Figure 4 reveal a clear trend of Power Distance increasing as CPI worsens, from 36.00 in Excellent CPI countries to 87.13 in Not Good CPI countries, confirming Hofstede (2011) that societies with higher corruption tend to have stronger hierarchical structures. Individualism decreases significantly as corruption perception worsens, with Excellent CPI countries showing 69.50, while Not Good CPI countries drop to 27.13, reinforcing Spry (2018), who suggested that individualistic societies tend to have stronger governance and lower corruption. Uncertainty Avoidance increases as CPI worsens, rising from 55.31 in Excellent CPI countries to 88.25 in Not Good CPI countries, aligning with Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018), who argued that highly corrupt societies often implement stricter regulations to mitigate uncertainty. Masculinity remains fairly stable across CPI groups, suggesting that competition-driven values do not significantly influence corruption perception in Europe, in contrast to trends observed in South America and Africa, where higher Masculinity was associated with increased corruption perception. Long-Term Orientation increases slightly with worsening CPI, from 54.69 in Excellent CPI countries to 66.13 in Not Good CPI countries, suggesting that more corrupt European countries might still focus on long-term planning, contradicting Achim (2016), who found that short-term focus is more common in high-corruption environments. Indulgence declines sharply from 58.94 in Excellent CPI countries to 28.00 in Not Good CPI countries, indicating that societies with stronger corruption perception tend to have stricter social norms and more restrained lifestyles, aligning with Hamilton & Hammer (2018).

4.2 CPI Correlation Analysis

4.2.1 South America: CPI Analysis

Figure 5: South America: Correlation Matrix

The correlation analysis in Figure 5 shows key relationships between cultural dimensions and corruption perception in South America. Masculinity has a negative correlation with Uncertainty Avoidance (-0.61), suggesting that as societies become more uncertain about the future, they tend to be less competition-driven, which contradicts Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018), who linked high uncertainty avoidance with rigid governance structures. Power Distance increases with corruption perception, reinforcing Seleim & Bontis (2009) that hierarchical societies are more prone to corruption. Individualism and Power Distance have a negative correlation (-0.48), confirming Zhou & Kwon (2020), who found that more individualistic societies tend to have weaker hierarchical structures, reducing corruption levels. Individualism is significantly higher in Excellent and Medium CPI countries, supporting Achim (2016) that individualistic cultures generally perceive lower corruption. Indulgence shows a positive correlation with Power Distance (0.42) and Uncertainty Avoidance (0.32), suggesting that societies with higher corruption perception also tend to have more indulgent social norms, which contrasts with findings in Europe where indulgence decreased with worsening CPI. These results indicate that while cultural dimensions shape corruption perception in South America, their effects vary by region, warranting further research on governance mechanisms and their role in moderating cultural influences on corruption.

4.2.2 Africa

Figure 6: Africa: Correlation Matrix

The correlation analysis in Figure 6 reveals several key relationships between cultural dimensions and corruption perception in Africa. Individualism and Power Distance have a strong negative correlation (-0.87), confirming Zhou & Kwon (2020) that societies with high individualistic tendencies tend to have weaker hierarchical structures, which in turn may reduce corruption perception. Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance have a weak negative correlation (-0.24), suggesting that as competitiveness increases, societies become slightly less concerned with uncertainty, which differs from findings in other regions, such as South America, where the correlation was stronger. Power Distance has a weak positive correlation with Uncertainty Avoidance (0.17), indicating that more hierarchical societies in Africa tend to experience slightly higher levels of uncertainty avoidance, which aligns with Hofstede (2011) but contrasts with some global trends where strong hierarchical structures often seek to reduce uncertainty. Long-Term Orientation has weak correlations with other cultural dimensions, suggesting that long-term planning may not be a dominant factor in shaping corruption perception in Africa, partially aligning with Achim (2016). Indulgence has very low correlations with all other dimensions, implying that social norms regarding gratification and restraint do not significantly impact corruption perception in Africa, unlike in South America, where indulgence was strongly correlated with Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance. These findings suggest that while some global patterns hold in Africa, there are distinct regional differences in how cultural dimensions interact with corruption perception, warranting further investigation into governance structures and policy implications.

4.2.3 Asia

Figure 7: Asia: Correlation Matrix

The correlation analysis in Figure 7 present key relationships between cultural dimensions and corruption perception in Asia. Power Distance and Masculinity have a moderate negative correlation (-0.50), indicating that as hierarchical structures become stronger, competition-driven values tend to decline, which partially aligns with Hofstede (2011) but differs from findings in Europe, where Masculinity and Power Distance were weakly positively correlated. **Individualism and Power Distance are negatively correlated (-0.35), reinforcing findings from Zhou & Kwon (2020) that societies with strong individualistic tendencies tend to have weaker hierarchical structures, reducing corruption perception. Long-Term Orientation and Individualism have a moderate negative correlation (-0.44), indicating that societies with strong future-oriented values tend to be less individualistic, which aligns with Achim (2016) but differs from trends observed in Africa. Uncertainty Avoidance has very weak correlations with other cultural dimensions, suggesting that in Asia, societal responses to uncertainty do not significantly impact hierarchical structures, competition, or social norms, differing from South America, where Uncertainty Avoidance was strongly linked to Masculinity. Indulgence has very weak correlations with all other dimensions, implying that social norms around gratification and restraint may not be a strong determinant of corruption perception in Asia, a trend also observed in Africa. These findings suggest that while some cultural dimensions align with global trends, Asia exhibits unique patterns in the relationship between Power Distance, Individualism, and corruption perception, requiring further investigation into regional governance structures.

4.2.4 Europe

Figure 8: Europe: Correlation Matrix

The correlation analysis in Figure 8 shows deeper insights into the relationships between cultural dimensions and corruption perception in Europe. Power Distance and Individualism have a strong negative correlation (-0.77), confirming Zhou & Kwon (2020) that as individualism increases, hierarchical power structures weaken, leading to lower corruption perception. Uncertainty Avoidance and Individualism also have a strong negative correlation (-0.68), supporting Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018), who suggested that highly uncertain societies tend to be less individualistic and more reliant on collective governance structures. Indulgence and Power Distance show a strong negative correlation (-0.68), indicating that as societal indulgence increases, hierarchical structures weaken, which aligns with Hofstede (2011) but contrasts with findings in South America, where Indulgence was higher in high-corruption environments. Uncertainty Avoidance and Power Distance have a strong positive correlation (0.71), meaning that societies with greater hierarchical structures also tend to have stricter rules to reduce uncertainty, reinforcing Seleim & Bontis (2009). Indulgence and Individualism have a positive correlation (0.57), suggesting that more individualistic societies tend to be more indulgent, which aligns with Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018). These findings indicate that Europe has the most structured correlation patterns among regions, reinforcing the role of governance mechanisms in shaping cultural dimensions and their impact on corruption perception.

5. Conclusion

5.1 Summary

This study analyzed the relationship between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) across South America, Africa, Asia, and Europe. The findings highlight significant variations and commonalities in how cultural factors influence corruption perception globally.

Key observations include:

1. South America: Higher masculinity and power distance correlate with worsening CPI, confirming governance inefficiencies in hierarchical societies (Hofstede, 2011; Achim, 2016). The negative correlation between Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity (-0.6) aligns with Seleim and Bontis (2009).

2. Africa: Lower CPI scores are linked to higher masculinity and collectivism, supporting Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018). Individualism negatively correlates with power distance (-0.87), reinforcing Dipierro & Rella (2024).

3. Asia: Masculinity and Individualism remain consistent across high- and low-CPI countries, aligning with Hamilton & Hammer (2018). Power Distance and Masculinity have a weak negative correlation (-0.5), supporting Chandler & Graham (2010).

4. Europe: Power Distance increases as CPI worsens, supporting Hofstede (2011). The strong negative correlation (-0.77) between Individualism and Power Distance aligns with Zhou & Kwon (2020). Individualism declines with worsening CPI, reinforcing findings by Spry (2018).

The study confirms that cultural dimensions significantly shape corruption perception, with strong regional variations. Power Distance, Individualism, and Uncertainty Avoidance remain critical factors influencing governance and transparency.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed:

1. Nations with high Power Distance should implement transparency measures to reduce hierarchical inefficiencies and mitigate corruption (Hofstede, 2011). Policies fostering institutional accountability can promote good governance.

2. Countries with low CPI rankings and strong collectivist cultures should consider policies that promote independent decision-making and reduce excessive reliance on hierarchical structures (Zhou & Kwon, 2020).

3. Policymakers should consider cultural factors when designing anti-corruption policies. High-masculinity cultures may benefit from shifting competitive success narratives toward ethical leadership and integrity (Achim, 2016).

4. Governments should capitalize on social media and digital platforms to enhance public diplomacy and improve transparency. The role of digital communication in fostering civic engagement and accountability should be explored further (Spry, 2018).

   
   

5.3 Future Research

Further studies should examine governance variations within each region to provide deeper insights into how cultural values interact with corruption perception. Additional research on the role of Long-Term Orientation and Indulgence in shaping governance structures is also recommended.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed to this research.

Funding: Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent Statement/Ethics Approval: Not applicable.