Consolidating Democracy in Ghana: The Role of the Social Sciences

1. Introduction

The Gold Coast was declared an independent state on 6th March, 1957 and its name changed to Ghana, after an ancient empire in Sudan which was vibrant economically from the fourth to the tenth centuries (Ziorkli, 1993). Since independence, Ghana’s political history reflects the alternation of power between military governments and democratically elected ones. Immediately after independence, the country embarked on a multi-party democratic system. Due to some political developments in the country, the Nkrumah government passed a legislation in 1964 that introduced a one-party state, invariably curtailing multi-party politics and moving the political system to an authoritarian one. Interventions by the military in the politics of the country from 1966 through to 1993, with ‘two short-lived democratic interludes in 1969-72 and 1979-81’, heightened authoritarianism in the body politic of the country (IEA, 2008). It is duly acknowledged that, countries that transition from colonialism to independent countries usually face political challenges in ensuring stability, consolidating democracy and rising to meet the expectations of the citizenry (Girven, 2024).

The Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) which ruled from 1981 to January 6th 1993 was the longest government in the history of the country.  It operated on a vision and ideology of social revolution with participatory democracy as the driving force for change (Gyimah-Boadi, 1993). This was a military government which ruled without the mandate of the people. Beginning from 1988, calls intensified for a return to democratic rule from the PNDC, and so in 1991 a Consultative Assembly was established to draft and write a new constitution for Ghana which was approved by the public through a referendum (Ayee, 1993). In April 1992, the draft constitution prepared by the Consultative Assembly was approved by an overwhelming majority of Ghanaians which constituted about 92 percent. This paved the way for the ban on party politics to be lifted in May, 1992, in preparation for elections based on multi-party democracy (Bureau of African Affairs, 2008). The National Democratic Congress (NDC), National Convention Party (NCP) and the Eagle party alliance won the first presidential elections conducted under the fourth Republic.

Since then, Ghana has been able to have a peaceful transfer of power from one democratic government to another resulting in the 9th parliament of the Fourth Republic under the 1992 Constitution being ushered into office on 7th January, 2025. The focus of this paper is to look at the extent to which Ghana has consolidated its present democratic experience and the role that the disciplines under the Social Sciences have played in the consolidation. This paper is presented in nine sections. Section one contains the introduction. This is followed by the profile of successive governments, and relevant theoretical issues in democracy and democratic consolidation. The fifth section examines strategies for democratic consolidation, while the sixth discusses the 1992 Constitution and Ghana’s democratic experience. The seventh, looks at the synergy between the social sciences and development, and the last, but one highlights the role of the Social Sciences in democratic consolidation and how the various disciplines contribute to the development of policy. The conclusion concentrates on the key roles of the Social Sciences in the consolidation of democratic norms to enhance national development.

2. Methodology

The review of the literature examined information from various important sources such as journals, academic publications, books, magazines and a host of websites which covers the major area of the paper, social sciences and democratic consolidation. Through this methodological approach, the paper was able to bring to the fore key information that spans the social sciences and the consolidation of democracy. Further to the above, the paper highlights the significant contribution of the social sciences to societal development. As an academic discipline, scholars and students who study in the disciplines under it, study the workings and the various institutions of society, and through that, are able to contribute to policy formulation as well as the needed reforms to ensure national development.

3. Results

3.1 Profile of successive governments and their economic policies

On 6th March, 1957 the then Gold Coast, gained independence from its colonial master Britain. The country then became a republic under the leadership of the late Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah of the Convention Peoples Party on 1st July, 1960. On 24th February, 1966 the Police cum military staged a successful coup and overthrew the Nkrumah government (Oquaye, 1980). The Progress Party led by Busia then came to power on 2nd October, 1969 but was short-lived and was overthrown by Kutu Acheampong on 13th January, 1972 (Oquaye, 1980). There was a ‘Palace Coup’ in 1978 where the chief of staff of General Kutu Acheampong, General Akuffo took over power and ruled till 1979. Flt. Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings took over on 4th June, 1979 and held power until elections (Chazan, 1988).  After years of military rule in the country, democracy was again re-instated and the People’s National Party (PNP) was elected into power on the 24th of September, 1979. The PNP government established a constitutional democracy fashioned along that of the United States where all government ministers came from outside the legislature (Ninsin, 1989).

On 31st December, 1981 on the eve of the new year, the PNDC government which had ushered in the PNP government overthrew same in a bloodless coup whiles Ghanaians were asleep. The military government led by Flt. Left. Jerry John Rawlings, its Chairman then ruled the country for eleven continuous years without any viable opposition or parliament. The country’s public sector went through a series of reforms between 1980 and 1990 which resulted in the World Bank - National Institutional Renewal Programme. International as well as domestic demands for a multi-party government and constitutional rule led to the opening of the political space and finally a referendum on 28th April, 1992 on a new constitution. The PNDC government then metamorphosed into the National Democratic Congress (NDC), with Jerry Rawlings as its presidential candidate which won the 1992 elections that were boycotted by the New Patriotic Party (NPP), the main opposition party. The president-elect was then sworn in on the 7th of January, 1993.

After two terms in office, the incumbent party lost power to the NPP led by John Agyekum Kufour which was also sworn into power in 2001. Prof. John Evans Atta-Mills took over from the Kufour government and ruled till the 12th of May, 2012 when he passed. His Vice-President John Dramani Mahama then took over and won the 2012 elections.

Summary of the political and economic profile, 1957–2021

Source:  Roe and Schneider (1957 - 1992); and Dordunoo C.K. (1993-1996); Authors’ construct, (2001 – 2021).

This was challenged at the Supreme Court where he was affirmed as the country’s newly elected leader. He lost power in the 7th December, 2016 elections to Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo of the NPP who has currently finished his second term. This is the longest establishment of democratic government that the country has enjoyed. Gradually, institutions are acquiring maturity, but not as expected to be able to deal with economic challenges currently confronting the country.

3.2 Democracy: what is it? Relevant theoretical issues

According to Schmitter and Karl (1991), the word democracy has been “circulating as a debased currency in the political market place”. Various political actors with varying believes and practices, strive to describe their actions as democratic (Schmitter & Karl, 1991). It resonates in the peoples mind daily, and comes from their mouths as they fight for their civil liberties and better economic prospects. There is therefore, an imperative need to craft a valid meaning, if it is to be of significant use in analysing political discourse and practice. Democracy is derived from the Greek word (dimokratia), “popular government” which was coined from (demos), “people” and (kratos) “rule” in the middle of the 5th-4th BC (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010). In contemporary discussion, democracy entails a system of political governance where those who rule are held accountable for their actions through periodic elections by the citizenry, either directly or indirectly in a competitive process by their chosen representatives (Sodaro, 2001).  Even though, scholars have not agreed on a universal definition of ‘democracy’, two key principles underlie any given definition. The first, and foremost principle is that, each member of the society has ‘equal access to power’, and secondly, all men enjoy their civil liberties guaranteed under international law (Schmitter & Karl, 1991).

Democracy goes beyond periodic elections, and embraces ‘meaningful dialogue, debates and political discussions that are geared towards resolving issues that arise within the community. Participation in decision-making, is one of the key essentials to notions of modern democracy. This is because citizens will be able to take part in decisions concerning their communities, which may pave way for a direct form of democratic governance where the views of the ordinary citizens may be heard. There is deliberation of issues that concerns all citizens. A meaningful deliberative democracy involves dialogue on pressing national issues among all competitive interests within the community on critical issues that confront them. Democratic governance at the local level promotes political education (IDEA, 2001).

By participating in decision making on challenges that confront them at the local level, individuals acquire a good knowledge about societal issues, which hitherto would have been the preserve of elected public officials and professional administrators. Further, there are three other significant features of democracy, which include civil liberty and equality before the law, competitive elections and constitutionalism, which embrace the rule of law, transparency and accountability (Tsai, 2024). These must be there to support the consolidation process (Tsai, 2024). A well-informed and educated citizens in a democratic society, make pluralist decision-making possible and more effective. Participation help narrow the gap between the “political elite” and community members (Levinson, 2011).

Proponents of participatory democracy, such as John Stuart Mill and other advocates, have opined that, by having deliberations with the people on issues that confront society at the local level, it unlocks the virtue and intelligence of the members of the community which intend to promote ‘good governance and social welfare’ (Kolak, 1999). This is because, democracy will eventually enhance good relationships among the citizenry, and help build a community that can map up strategies for their own defined needs. Another advocate of participatory democracy, Rousseau was of the firm believe that, by participating in decision-making on issues that confront the people, it brings about what is good for all through consensus reached, by simple majority (Rousseau, 1762). This essay will examine the extent to which the social sciences enhance these attributes in democratic consolidation.

Democracy also involves having periodic or regular and credible elections, where power is transferred through universal adult suffrage without any coercion. In well-established democracies, there is the presence of a guaranteed opposition where political opponents and minorities can express their views and influence decision – making i.e. this goes beyond mere representation in the policy making process (Heywood, 2000). In instances where minorities views cannot be factored, opposition should be institutionalised and should not be violent. There should be respect and protection of the basic fundamental human rights of the citizenry which includes civil and political rights. Other scholars are also of the view that, democracy should entail ‘development, economic and environmental rights such as clean water, housing, and opportunities for employment’ (IDEA, 2001).

The African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007) have also emphasised under Article 2, under the objectives of the charter that democracy could be deepened if member states promote and imbibe universal values and principles. Added to this, is respect for human rights, promoting and enhancing adherence to constitutionalism, and rule of law anchored on the supremacy of the constitution in all political arrangements. Moreover, the charter also stipulates the holding of regular, free and fair elections to ensure institutionalised legitimate authority of representative government, as well as democratic change of government. The Charter on democratic governance also prohibits, and rejects unconstitutional change of government in any member state as a serious threat to stability. It promotes peace, security and development and ensures the protection of judicial independence (African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, 2007).

Further, the charter also highlights the nurturing, support and consolidation of good governance through the promotion of democratic values, which includes building and strengthening institutions of governance and inculcating political values in the citizenry. This has also been reiterated by Tsai (2024) who has opined that, democracy embraces three key essential values such as civil liberties, democratic pluralism and constitutionalism. It also encourages effective co-ordination and harmonisation of governance policies amongst state parties, with the aim of promoting regional and continental integration, sustainable development and human security. The charter also speaks against corrupt practices that occur within the state, encourages the establishment of democratic norms that enhance the participation of the citizenry in decision-making, guarantees transparency, free access to accurate and timely information, free press and accountable governance in public administration (African Charter on Elections and Governance, 2007). The attainment of human development goals is contingent on strong bonds that exist between good governance and sustainable development.

Sodaro (2001) in his book “Comparative Politics: A Global Introduction” has stated that, the key ingredient of democracy is the ability of the people to determine those that govern them. In several instances, the people elect those who govern them, that is key government officials and hold them accountable through periodic elections and questioning time in the national assembly on actions taken. Democracy also places legal limits on the powers of the government through the guarantee of certain basic rights to the citizenry. Governance entails a collection of means in electing people to public offices, the attributes of those who are eligible to hold public office and those who cannot, and the rules that govern the making of public policies. For this to be able to work to achieve the desired ends, there must be laid down procedures which are known and accepted by all (Schmitter & Karl, 1991). Lastly, but not the least, democracy must enhance gender equity and equality in the governance process and guarantee international best practices in elections management to ensure political continuity that leads to democratic consolidation.

3.3 Democratic consolidation

Democratic consolidation entails the process whereby a newly established democracy matures to the extent that, it is very difficult to relapse into dictatorial tendencies without an external shock. Some academics are of the view that, democratic norms become consolidated through the creation and promotion of secondary structures that nurtures it. The term “democratic consolidation” also refers to a situation of making sure that newly-established democracies become secured, their existence prolonged and safeguards provided to ensure that it does not relapse into authoritarian rule (Schedler, 1998). Further, it involves an improvement in the electoral system, enhancing transparency and accountability, upholding rule of law, intensifying effective communication among and between leaders and followers, and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the various democratic actors as well as increasing the knowledge of discerning voters.  Hadiwasito (2024), Linz and Stepan (1996), in their contribution have pointed out that, rule of law is one of the key pillars of democratic consolidation. This is aimed at ensuring justice, peace, stability and economic growth, which are pre-requisites of national development and improved standard of living (IDEA, 2008).

Linz and Stepan (1996), see democratic consolidation as when democracy becomes the only ‘game in town’, and when individuals do not resort to other means aside what the democratic space allows.  People who aspire to public office only use the legitimate process to acquire power. It is believed that, the most genuine test of consolidation is whether an institutionalised democratic governance can withstand any autocratic tendencies during difficult times. Social scientists as well as political practitioners discuss whether young democracies such as that of Ghana will fall back into their authoritarian pasts, and what kind of conditions might foster their struggle for democratic survival. The overall label for entrenching democracy so as not to be able to slip into authoritarianism is what is called democratic consolidation.

Three main theories have been put forward on the consolidation of democracies, institutionalising informal rules, civic culture and rule of law. Scholars such as Nova (2011), are of the view that, a democratic form of government gets consolidated when ‘secondary institutions that make democracy work are improved’. In the view of Muhammad and Kinge (2024), democratic consolidation connotes the process of ensuring that institutions get strengthened, acquire stability, and the entrenchment of democratic culture. Whereas democracy is ‘a process’, its consolidation highlights the end result of the process.

O’Donnell (1996), in his account has also emphasised that, instituting rules that relates to an election is not one of the key features of democratic consolidation. The author’s approach is premised on the fact that, there should be laid down procedures which are entrenched within the constitution that guides the actions of public officials. Consolidation according to this process is when rules are institutionalised that nurture and support democratic values (Diamond, 1997). Almond and Verba (1996) also brought civic culture as the prime focus of democratic consolidation. In their view, democracy is consolidated when the ‘values and attitudes’ which are present, support the participation of the citizenry in established democratic structures, and how the people in the political system relate to each other when dealing with their personal interests.

Putnam (1993), in his contribution has also stated that, democracy is consolidated when ‘political capital’ is accrued. It has also been emphasised that, the alternation of power in a country serves as a measure of a country’s consolidation of democracy and highlights the level of fairness and integrity of the electoral process (Idowu & Oluwafemi, 2020). Scholars of democratic consolidation vary in their assessment of the precise nature of these threshold conditions. They stipulate that, democracy become consolidated when democratic institutions become legitimised (Linz & Stepan, 1997), the acceptance of laid down procedures under a rational framework (O’Donnell, 1996), the alternation of power in a “two-turnover test” (Pasquino, 1993), a strong civil society to check political abuse and excesses (Diamond, 1999), and the institutionalisation of civic norms and values within the society (Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). All of these have a common threshold, that is there should be a successful transition from an incumbent regime to an opposition without disrupting the political process.

Fukuyama buttressed Almond and Verba’s view, that the key to consolidation is a supportive political culture. Anikwe et al. (2024), in their assessment have intimated that, democratic consolidation emphasises the process where a new democracy is stabilised and secured, by putting in place mechanisms to ensure that it does not relapse into authoritarian rule. It is a well - known fact that, democratic consolidation plays a vital role in protecting the unity of a country, ensuring the integration of the country within the social and political milieu (Hadiwasito, 2024). Muhammad and Kinge (2024), have noted that Africa’s trajectory to democratic rule is fraught with uncertainties which has resulted in authoritarian rule in some of the countries in the continent, with coup d’état in Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso and Guinea. We will turn our attention to strategies for consolidation to see if some of the key values and attributes are present in the Ghanaian context.  

3.4 Strategies for democratic consolidation

Democratic consolidation is anchored on the quality of the moral life of the citizens within the country. The entrenchment of human rights and rule of law in the legal framework of governance is “a necessary, but not a sufficient condition” for ensuring the success of democratic rule (Linz & Stepan, 1996a). The valued norms, as well as the settled practices of the society are very significant to the consolidation of democracy. The desire of the citizenry to support and nurture democratic rule such as in Ghana, the constitution, emphasising the concept of rule of law are significant for a successful consolidation of democracy. Further, Diamond (1997) has posited that, the people in a democratic system must have integrity and be honest. They must also have an appreciable level of education to be able to comprehend issues better together with a good income and be able to tolerate dissenting opinions, respect the rights of minorities and be predisposed to maintain a high threshold in public administration (Diamond, 1997).

Customary laws and practices need to be strengthened and enforced with those acquiring notoriety becoming part of the laws of the land. In this sense, Article 11 of the 1992 Republican Constitution of Ghana place emphasise on customary law. Traditional institutions need to be included in the decision-making process and the governance of the state. It is trite knowledge that, no government in the world can be successful in its endeavours in effective and efficient policy formulation, as well as implement them without the participation of the citizenry (Abdi et al., 2005). After all, what concerns all, must be approved by all. This therefore calls for inclusive or participatory governance if democracy is to be consolidated. In addition to these, civil society groups and Non–Governmental Organisations (NGOs) need to be vibrant. These are institutions that play a two-fold function, first as partners with government in the development process, and second acting as a pressure group to either lend support or critique the policies of government. They play a crucial advocacy role in bringing the citizens closer to the policy makers (Nova, 2011). 

Moreover, there is the imperative need to ensure the participation of women in the various institutions of state, as well as making sure that their voices are heard. The number of women in the eight Parliament was 40, out of the 275 members. This is not in tandem with the population of the women in the country which is more than half of the population. This is the same with the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies and female positions in the public sector. It has been stated that, when it comes to the discussion of democracy and democratic consolidation in Ghana, women who are more than half of the population should have their views and voices heard (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2021).  The question is, has Ghana all the tenets as suggested by the theories and to what extent are these attributes part of the legal framework of governance under the 1992 constitution.                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

4. Discussion

4.1. The 1992 Constitution and Ghana’s democratic experience

The 1992 Constitution of Ghana creates the structural framework on which the governance of the country is centred. Specifically, under the Directive Principles of State Policy in chapter six:                  

Article 35(1) states that, “Ghana shall be a democratic state dedicated to the realisation of freedom and justice; and accordingly, sovereignty resides in the people of Ghana from whom all its powers and authority are derived” (Constitution, 1992). This constitutional anchoring is further enhanced by;

Article 36 (6) d which stipulates that: “the state shall take appropriate measures to make democracy a reality by decentralising  the administrative and financial machinery of government to the regions and districts and by affording all possible opportunities to the people to participate in decision-making at every level in national life and in government”.

Democratic experience in Ghana under the fourth republic is characterised by three main features. First, and foremost, the fundamental law of the land, the 1992 Constitution of the republic emphasise keen competition among political actors, especially political parties to all elective positions in the country (Constitution, 1992). The competition envisaged by the constitution is one that should occur periodically, and avoid the use of force. Second, people should have the free will to participate in political activities (Diamond, 1997) when it comes to the selection of leaders and policies. This should be done through a free, fair and credible elections where no segment of society is excluded (African Charter on Elections and Governance, 2007). Article 55 of the 1992 Constitution stipulates these as follows:

1.     The right to form political parties is hereby guaranteed.

2.     Every citizen of Ghana of voting age has the right to join a political party.

3.     Subject to the provisions of this article, a political party is free to participate in shaping the political will of the people, to disseminate information on political ideas, social and economic programmes of a national character, and sponsor candidates for election to any public office either than to district assemblies or lower local government unit.

Finally, the constitution guarantees the basic civil and political liberties of the citizenry to ensure a meaningful as well as a healthy competition among political actors together with their participation in decision making. Chapter 5 of the Constitution, specifically Articles 12 -33 spells out the basic fundamental freedoms to be enjoyed by the citizenry. Most importantly, every person within the democratic space should be able to enjoy his or her basic fundamental human rights (IEA, 2008). Further, power should be derived from the express opinion of the people. Consequently, right from the preamble to Article 1 (1) of the 1992 Republican Constitution stipulates as follows:

            “The sovereignty of Ghana resides in the people of Ghana in whose name and for   whose welfare the    powers of government are to be exercised in the manner and within the limits laid down in this  Constitution” (Republic of Ghana, 1992). 

Since 7th January,1993, the political landscape of the country has been characterised by a multi-party system of governance, with the ruling government operating within the limits laid down by the constitution and a guaranteed opposition putting government on its toes and engaging in a healthy and in some occasions acrimonious debates. The legislative arm of government is fashioned out in such a way that, it helps ensure that the executive acts within the established framework, whiles there is a vibrant judiciary which is striving to assert itself each day. Judicial independence is guaranteed under Article 125 (1) of the Constitution. There is also a free and vibrant media, both electronic (television and radio stations) that have been living up to its accolade as the fourth Estate of the realm.

One of the key and significant feature of Ghana’s democratic experience is the survival of the present constitution for the last thirty-two years, and the alternation of power between the two main political parties with each ruling for a total of sixteen years. Ghana again has been hailed as a democratic country with the conduct of the elections in 2016 and the smooth transfer of power to the elected party of the NPP on 7th January, 2017 and to another term on the 7th of January, 2021. On the 7th of December, 2024, Ghanaians again went to the polls to elect another President, as well as Members of Parliament for the 9th Parliament. This is significant, since this will be about the nineth general election held in the country since 1992.

In addition to periodic, free and fair elections is the presence of a stable socio-economic and a political environment that is conducive for nurturing the constitution.  Constitutional provisions typically define political processes and relationships, distribute power within the state and between state and non-state institutions and generally provide the macro-political context within which democracy is practiced (Linz & Stepan, 1996a). Democratic values manifest itself in processes and institutions that are developed over time to support and nurture the democratic processes, which intend protect the rights of the citizenry, and reinforce the basis for the existence of the state to exercise its territorial powers.

In instances where established structures and the institutions of state are unable to protect the rights of the people, and moreover, propel the state to exercise its functions and provide the needs of the people, the whole political system collapses. This is important with institutions such as political parties, the Electoral Commission, the media, CSOs, women groups, the youth as well as traditional institutions whose effectiveness and efficiency cannot be discounted in democratic governance (Diamond, 1997).

Ghana’s democratic experience under the fourth Republic is anchored on constitutional representation as spelt out in the 1992 Republican Constitution. The constitution is made up of twenty-six (26) chapters, as well as two (2) schedules which are made up of transitional provisions and oaths of office of key public officers, such as the President, Vice, Speaker of Parliament and the Chief Justice. These constitute the legal framework of governance for the country, which has provided a stable macro-political environment for democratic consolidation. The country’s democracy hinges faithfully on important   democratic concepts such as separation of powers (Executive, Legislature and Judiciary), the rule of law, checks and balances, respect for fundamental human rights, a National Commission for Civic Education and an independent and assertive judiciary. 

Since 1992, there have been various petitions filed at the apex court, the Supreme Court to challenge the election of presidents elected. But, of all these the two prominent ones have been the election petitions of 2013, where the court declared John Mahama as the winner, and that of 2021, filed by the NDC to challenge the elected president of the NPP, where Nana Addo-Dankwah Akufu Addo was declared the winner. The judiciary asserted itself as the stabilising institution as stipulated in the 1992 Constitution and resolved the controversies that emerged. Currently, on November, 12th 2024, it again delivered a landmark ruling on the Speaker of Parliament’s ruling on vacation of seats by four Members of Parliament which had the tendency to derail the democratic credentials of the country. Ghana is now seen as a democratic country with these various experiences. This is in consonance with the point reiterated by the IIDEA that, a state’s legitimacy is brought down when the judiciary fails to act as “a positive force for social change”, where they are independent and act in a positive manner to promote ‘ethical political leadership’ (IDEA, 2016).

4.2. Social Science and democracy – A synergy for development

Social science is “the scientific study of human society and social relationships”. It is that branch of science that spells out the various institutions and structures that deals with the crucial functioning of the human society (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010). Social science is a significant segment of academic discipline which entails the workings of the various structures within society. In its broadest sense, it is about how society and its people act and promote the world in which man lives (Economic and Social Research Council, 2017). Social sciences, as an academic discipline deals with the study of social life of different groups within society. Further, social science studies the human society, together with what individuals do in society. It proceeds further to give a vivid account of the world, and help us to understand how society works, such as the causes of employment, what engender economic growth, in addition to why citizens have to vote.

Through the social sciences, vital information is provided for government, policymakers, local government institutions and CSOs to work (Economic and Social Research Council, 2017). The various disciplines under the social sciences provide students and scholars with insight into human behaviour in a scientific manner, thereby enabling them to see the significance of “science’ in their daily lives and to contemporary happenings in the world around us. Consequently, academics as well as students get exposed to the most critical issues that relate to human, socio-economic, cultural and how institutions behave. The study of the various disciplines is vital for the future society.

Social capital theory emphasise that, the broader dimensions of ‘social trust’ is significant and play a key role in the myriad of institutions as well as the behaviour of individuals which provides the grounds for an effective and efficient democratic governance (Seibert, Kraimer & Liden, 2001). Trust within the various facets of society provides grounds for co-operation within the social system, which enhance group behaviour and dynamics with its attendant impact on the whole society (O’Neil 2002; Uslaner, 2002). When there is trust, it enables the citizenry to live together to resolve pressing societal issues in view of the fact that it makes it convenient and easy to participate in decision-making on civic matters, enhance the strengthening of social institutions on which a peaceful, stable and a vibrant democracy is anchored (Muller & Seliosan, 1994; Seligman, 1997). Democracy and good governance, will then invariably strengthen the conditions where social and political trust can be nurtured, which consequently will enable the citizenry to live in harmony by co-operating with each other in the attainment of both private and public sector administration (Zmerli & Newton, 2008).

Under social capital theory, ‘social and political trust’ are closely related and mutually reinforce each other (Newton, 2007; Rothstein & Stalle, 2003; Rutnam, 2000).  Implicit within the social capital theory is the notion that, when there is the presence of a network of groups relating to each other, it makes the conduct of public decisions effective and convenient, due to the fact that the members of the society are able to come together to co-operate easily (Nahapiet & Ghoshals, 1998). The theory has prima facie plausibility and, as a basic proposition of political sociology that tries to link the social with the political, a great deal of potential theoretical power (Dekker & Uslaner 2001; Sztompka, 2000). A proper picture of the use and value of social science data for government and administration can be seen in the following statements of different political groups at different times.

“If it has been possible to start relevant research work earlier, some of the labour market problems confronting us today might have been tackled in a better way.”

“Above all, I expect the social sciences to help us imagine future developments and instead of merely issuing increasingly resigned warnings against the risks of technology, finally to attempt to identify the opportunities for shaping the social and economic structures of our technology-based society (Dekker & Uslaner 2001; Sztompka, 2000).

I hope that social scientists will use their imagination and take up the burning issues of today, thus abandoning their common self-centred approach” (Zmerli & Newton, 2008).

These quotations reflect the prevailing expectations concerning the contribution of the social sciences to politics and the value of their results for government and administration. Policy makers, like those who are concerned with the rational design of a component of society such as industrial enterprises need scientific advice. A political approach can only be rational if the assumptions on which political action is based correspond to the real-life situation (Zmerli & Newton, 2008). It is only social science research that can offer a scientific approach towards making predictions for the politician in a stable democracy so that the government can use the results for the research for planning purposes. Political experience gained from previous action is not enough to guarantee such correspondence. Society is constantly changing due to the application of the rapidly growing scientific and technological knowledge, the ever-increasing prosperity, and the rapid development of man’s options for the life in our industrial world and due to the change of orientation and priorities regarded as a change of values (UHL, 1989).

Politics is supposed to adjust social institutions, standards and conditions to changed reality. This requires a reliable analysis of the changes that have occurred. Political reproduction of former realities entails a waste of resources and a loss of authority and legitimacy, just as actions based on improper assumptions about realities (Newton, 2007). A rational policy i.e. action which pursues a particular goal and relates to reality must exploit all opportunities to perceive reality and identify its revealing pattern. This implies that it must be open to a critical evaluation of methods, to an objective, unbiased, i.e. scientific counselling. Such counselling is a pre-requisite for rational policy-making. This is crucial in liberal democracies. It is only social science research that can offer the platform for perceiving the relation in society (Rothstein & Dietlind, 2003).

In today’s society, political decisions and measures must be carefully considered, prepared and legitimised during a public debate. This debate on the objectives, values, instruments, strategies, costs, etc of political action includes the use of social science knowledge as a major aspect, social science data help identify the major social problems as well as social factors and causes (Newton, 2007). Modern liberal democracies hinges on participation. Social science research may sensitise decision-makers to new issues and turn what were non-problems into policy problems (Lollo, 2012). In turn, it may convert existing social problems into non-problems. It may drastically revise the way a society thinks about issues that it faces (Uhl, 1989), and policies that are viewed as susceptible to alteration and the alternative measure it considers. This could be achieved through debates in the media, submission of memoranda and public debates. Social science research is needed in finding out the opinion of the public and sensitise government decisions. Social science data is crucial in public policy and administration (Rothstein & Dietlind, 2003).

It is evident how important economic research is for the modern social welfare state, which aims to achieve full employment, economic growth and monetary stability. Researchers work hard to establish a perfect data system for national economies. Theoretical economics and the empiric economic sciences develop an impressive set of indicators, which seemed to make possible accounting at national, regional and international levels (Seibert et al., 2001). The percentage growth of the gross national product – monthly, annually or over many years – seemed to provide an objective yardstick for measuring the development of prosperity, full employment and monetary stability. It is widely believed that the economic sciences had thus been admitted to the select circle of the exact empirical sciences and a sound basis created for economic decisions to be taken by policy makers and administrators. Each percent up or down the scale of gross national product development usually not only prompted a new wave of public debate on economic policy, but in most cases also predetermined economic policy to a considerable extent (Sodaro, 2001).

Geographers, planners are involved in the day-to-day development of our towns, cities, and the building of infrastructure. When governments are carrying out development projects, development plans are drawn up for policy makers to engage various stakeholders and if the project will involve resettlement, dialogue is held with the would be affected people, who contribute to the process by offering suggestions (Zmerli & Newton, 2008). Contemporary peace education focuses on peace research which is characterised by the endeavour to foster the acquisition of knowledge, skills and values necessary for promoting peace, tolerance, understanding, rule of law and respect for fundamental human rights (Tuffuor, 2023). Peace education has the potential to facilitate interpersonal communication and negotiation of development and political matters with politicians and leaders at the local and national levels. Peace education can also cultivate political determination to uphold democracy. In the view of Tschudin (2018), the implementation of effective democracy and decentralisation can enable governments to not only provide services, but also function for citizen engagement.

In a study conducted by Smith et al. (2022), the authors highlighted the importance of peace education in addressing structural violence and promoting democratic processes. The provision of peace education enables individuals to acquire the essential competencies and understanding required to actively participate in peaceful protests, boycotts, and resist oppressive and inequitable systems using non-violent means. People can work towards achieving systemic change by utilising the analytical thinking and awareness of society that peace education provides (Smith et al., 2022). In a study by the United States Institute of Peace (2019), it was revealed that peace education programmes have demonstrated efficacy in reducing violence, promoting peaceful conflict resolution, and upholding democratic norms. Education in peace, within the social sciences can help promote the peaceful resolution of disputes and defend democratic principles by enhancing understanding of the underlying causes of disagreements and addressing the social, economic, and political issues that arise in society.

Jones and Kaur (2023), have also emphasised the significance of incorporating peace education into formal and informal education systems. According to the authors, peace education should be incorporated into school curricula and community-based programmes. This is because, it is through this that, individuals at diverse life phases can collectively comprehend strategies for preserving democracy and to advance a culture of peace throughout the various segments of society. The discussion so far has been establishing a synergy between social science and development. What role can social science play in the attainment of the objectives and attributes of democratic rule? The paper will now focus on the role of the social sciences in democratic consolidation in Ghana.

4.3. The role of social science in democratic consolidation in Ghana

Every person is entitled to live his or her life in dignity and free from fear, with a fair share of the country’s resources and an equal say in how they are governed (United Nations, 1948). Democracy is an alternative form of government because its principles embrace these human needs and desires and can often deliver them in reality. And the more experience people have of living in a democracy, the more they support it. The democratic ideal in and of itself seeks to guarantee equality and basic freedoms to empower ordinary people to resolve disagreements through peaceful dialogue, respect differences and to bring about political and social renewal without convulsions. The principle of ‘popular rule’ or rule by popularly elected representatives is at the heart of this ideal (Sodaro, 2001).

In Ghana, it means popular control over elected rulers, equal rights and liberties, political freedom and freedom from want, the rule of law, justice and security. Quality outcomes and community rights are a significant aspect of what people want from democracy. Social science/scientists can help in the attainment of these ideals. First and foremost, social scientists through opinion polls and credible research can know what the people want in terms of development. In Ghana during the last elections, opinion polls were used to know the various developmental challenges of the people in order for policy makers to provide appropriate remedy. For example, as a result of the complaints by fishermen after debates on the national media, the government acquired naval boats to check the pair-trawling that was going on (IDEA, 2008). Polls on the concerns were done by the social scientists and this in a way has contributed to the deepening of our democracy, by responding appropriately to the citizenry’s needs.

In line with Standing Order numbers 151 and 152, Parliament during each session constitutes the various committees of the House. These are Subsidiary legislation, Special budget, Public Accounts and Privileges Committees. Others include the Government Assurance Committee, Committee on Gender and Children, Judiciary, Finance and Business Committee among others (Republic of Ghana, 2017). These various committees are filled by mostly people from the social sciences who contribute to policy making and governance of the country and invariably help entrench democratic rule. In addition to these, the Select Committees of Local Government, Works and Housing, Constitutional, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs, health, Communication, Foreign Affairs, Defence and Interior, Education, Employment, Social Welfare and State Enterprises and Trade, Industry and Tourism are also filled by people with Political Science, Economics, Law, Psychology, Education, Sociology, and Development Studies which are all in the field of Social Science. This exemplifies the role of the Social Sciences in democratic consolidation.

Moreover, Policy makers and administrators use data from social science research for development purposes (Lollo, 2012). Opinion polls carried out in various regions, districts, towns and villages brought out the problems in these areas to the fore, so that they could be addressed by policy makers on ascending to political office. As a result of economic research, we are able to calculate per capita income and gross national income. This is used for planning purposes and for overall national development. The annual reports published by Institute for Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the research from social scientists all over the country enable the state to know the development gap and to bring the attention of policy makers to priority areas that calls for urgent attention. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it became abundantly clear that the country needed more health facilities. The sitting president then took the opportunity to commence the building of additional one hundred and eleven hospitals dubbed “Agenda 111” to cater for the health needs of the people. Through research and policy reforms, government is able to address pressing national issues.

Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution and consumption of wealth. Economics seeks to understand how individuals interact within the social structure, to address key questions about the production and exchange of goods and services. Outreach programmes by the various Economic departments are aimed at interacting with industrial and business concerns in the country for development purposes. It deals with the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants” and “the study of the financial aspects of human behaviour” (Seibert et.al., 2001). According to Robbins (1932), economics is the science which studies human behaviour as a relation between scarce means of having alternative uses. “Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no economic problem”. By knowing how much resources are available, and which of the areas in the nation are pressing, policy makers would be able to channel scarce resources to these areas to promote development. This will result in efficient use of resources which at the end of the day will benefit the populace. This invariably can contribute to the stability of the state to enhance democratic consolidation. Economic and social history looks at the past events to learn from history and better understand the processes of contemporary society in the various geographical regions.

The field of geography is split into physical and human. The human geography focuses on fields as diverse as cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations and cities. Other branches of geography include social geography, regional geography, geometrics and environmental geography. The geographer as a statesman has the fore knowledge to assist the government to demarcate regions for districts and constituencies when it comes to ensuring fair representation and participation of the people in governance. His expertise contributes to the judicious use of the natural resources for sustainable development. Through their consultancies, environmental policies are formulated and implemented for environmental sustainability.

Another field of social science is Demography. This is the study of populations and population changes and trends, using resources such as statistics of births, deaths and disease. Information from demographic studies can be used for planning purposes. The number of births in a year, may enable governments to plan on how many schools to be built, the number of people who will attain the age of eighteen who will be voting in an election, and how much resources will be needed by the Electoral Commission in registering them and how much will be required for voter education by the National Commission for Civic education of these new voters are crucial for democratic consolidation. During the 2016 elections in Ghana, various stakeholders and political parties deliberated extensively on the pros and cons of having a new register. By providing this vital information for planning and budgeting and reforms in the country, demographic studies help in contributing to democratic consolidation.

Psychology studies the human mind and tries to understand how people and groups experience the world through various emotions, ideas, and conscious states. Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour and mental processes. It also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems in individual’s daily lives and the treatment of mental illness (Lahey, 1995). Under Psychology, is social psychology that examines how contemporary society molds individuals to its image. Topics include human instinct, values and needs, attitudes, the process of socialisation, suggestion and propaganda, rumour, prejudice, social conflicts, conformity, social values and interaction (Santrock, 2000). By understanding how people and groups experience the world through values, needs and socialisation, governments are able to set out its priority right and eventually carry the people along in development projects. This will at the end of the day contribute to the socio-political stability in the state thereby enhancing and contributing to the consolidation of the country’s democracy.

Law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one’s view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is a system of rules to achieve justice, and as authority to mediate people’s interests and even as “the common of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction (Freeman, 2014). Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social science and humanity. Law focuses on the rules created by governments and people to ensure a more orderly society. Laws are politics, because politicians create them (Raz, 1979). Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law is also about history because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. Law is also economics since any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour law, company law and many other areas of the law have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth (Dworkin, 1986). Ghana’s democracy hinges on the rule of law as emphasised by the constitutional and legal framework (Republic of Ghana, 1992).

Lawyers will thus be needed in the formulation of policy through law-making, and interpretation of these by the judiciary who are also knowledgeable in the law (Freeman, 2014).  By undertaking this crucial national assignment, they will be helping in entrenching the ideals of democracy such as respect for the rule of law, fundamental human rights and protection of vulnerable groups in society which are crucial in democratic consolidation.

Social work is concerned with social problems, (poverty, discrimination against minorities, crime and delinquency) their causes, their solutions and their human impacts. Social work is the profession committed to the pursuit of social justice, to the enhancement of the quality of life, and to the development of the full potential of each individual, group and community in society. Social policy is an interdisciplinary and applied subject concerned with the analysis of society’s responses to social needs, focusing on aspects of society, economy and policy that are necessary to human existence, and how these can be provided people in detail. Social statistics, methods and computing which involve the collection and analysis of quantitative social science data (Serena &Warms, 2008) can be used to provide important data for policy making in a democratic society. This information can help in planning purposes which invariably can contribute to democratic governance and political decision-making in the country.

Political Science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political system and political behaviour. Under this discipline, courses are offered in political system and political behaviour (Heywood, 2000). Under these disciplines, courses are offered in political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, governance, participatory democracy, national system, cross-national analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy and international law. Others include public administration, administrative behaviour, public law, judicial behaviour, public policy and governance (Leftwich, 2004). In local governance, there is a sound understanding of local democracy at the regional and grass root levels, dissemination of values of local democracy, financial and administrative autonomy of local governments (Lazlo & Krippner, 1998). Public Administration is aimed at the pursuit of public good by enhancing civil society and social justice (Sodaro, 2001).

Political science as an academic and research discipline, also deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behaviour. Politics focuses on democracy and the relationship between people and policy, at all levels up from the individual to a national and international level. Proponents of the new institutionalist school in political science emphasise that political institutions not only mirror, but affect society. Political democracy depends not only on economic and social conditions but also on the design of political institutions which are structures that define and defend interests (Montecines, 1993). This is crucial in any democratic consolidation.

Public policy analyses how social problems become public problems and how the government develops public policies (Leftwich, 2004). The study of Ghanaian politics and government from both historical and contemporary perspectives place emphasis on changes that have significantly shaped the direction of Ghanaian politics. Special attention is devoted to social class, ethnicity, city, race, and ideology as factors that have influenced the democratic political machine and its opposition (Oquaye, 2004). Women studies deals with political empowerment of women, gender justice and the role of women in participatory democracy. Professionals with requisite knowledge from these fields can contribute to policy debate in both society and in the governance of the country.

Sociology is the study of society and human social action. Sociology is the systematic study of society and human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix “-ology”, which means study of derived from Greek, and the stem “socio”, which is from the latin word of socius meaning companion or society in general (Schaefer, 2005). It concerns itself with the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions and includes the examination of the organisation and development of human social life. Since the 1970s many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers and others in solving social problems and formulating public theory in the various sub-discipline such as evaluation research, methodological assessment and public sociology.

Sociology involves groups of people, rather than individuals, and attempts to understand the way people relate to each other and function as a society or social subgroups (Habermas, 1990). Scholars from this field can play a crucial role in democratic consolidation by fostering a spirit of nationalism, civic consciousness and political socialisation in democratic ideals which at the end of the day will enhance democratic consolidation. Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialisation, urbanisation and secularisation and a perceived process of enveloping rationalisation (Serena & Warms, 2008). More broadly, sociologists argue that, the legitimating ground for the attempts made by the state elites to create institutional arrangements is provided by societal and cultural environments.

Social science research and knowledge contributes to the development of policy and practice. It considers how academics in general and social scientists in particular can collaborate with policy-makers and practitioners to enrich development work, and thereby promote overall national knowledge. Social work focuses on social change, problem-solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance social justice (Economic and Social Research Council, 2017). Social anthropology is the study of how human societies and social structures are organised and understood. All of these contribute significantly to political education which is vital to the survival of any democracy.

United Nations (1998), reported that Forty-five of Africa’s fifty-three countries in that year were listed among the world’s least developed, with very high levels of illiteracy. The United Nations estimates that Africa accounts for more than half of all war-related deaths worldwide, resulting in over 8 million refugees and displaced persons (United Nations, 1998; Gertzel, 1995). We in the social sciences have human culture and society as our main objects of study and by definition ought to be in the forefront of the quest for devising appropriate means by which human misery, squalor and poverty will be tackled. This will invariably bring stability in society and by that we will be helping in consolidating our infant democracy.

Traditionally, Universities and other tertiary institutions act as the guardians of public conscience and as independent critics of government policies and of society in general. This means economists, psychologists, sociologists, social geographers, planners, history practitioners, political scientists, lawyers, policy analyst and students in the field of development studies should be able to call politicians to order through their research findings and publications and thereby help to cure society of some evils. In doing this we will be helping our democratic dispensation to mature. Parliament is made up of 33 percent lawyers, 13 percent educationists with the remaining being geographers, planners and architects who are in the majority (Parliament of Ghana, 2012). Currently, the nineth Parliament is made up of law makers with diverse backgrounds such as law, political science, economics, sociology, education, management, psychology and planning. If these people are from the field of social science, then they are contributing to consolidate the country’s democracy.

Education enlightens people and changes their social consciousness. By this, they are better able to articulate ills in society and to participate in issues concerning national development. Undergraduate and post-graduate programmes are offered in almost all the departments in social science which aim to train students at different levels in the labour environment. It provides training to the needs of employers and all who engage in studying any of the subjects. The result is the consultancy and advisory services to local and international agencies, private as well as public organisations. Researches are conducted to meet the needs of clients. Education is one of the most important social sciences, exploring how people learn and develop. Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound – the imparting of knowledge. Education has one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation. The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life.

This brings about employment for the youth, and also contributes to research into the national dialogue in the development process through the consultancies offered which invariably leads to a matured democracy. Levison (2011) explore the relationships between educational processes and citizenship education from anthropological perspective. He indicated that virtually all education in and out of school, construct identities and orients moral conduct of group life. This aids democratic citizenship which eventually helps in democratic consolidation. Education in its various expressions (formal, non-formal and informal) is understood to be fundamental to the establishment and formation of a citizenry which recognises and values the importance of participatory engagement in the process of governance and institutions of government that would be relevant to particular societal arrangements (Abdi et al., 2005).

Anthropology is the holistic “science of man,” a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences. The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature (Freeman, 2014). This means that, though anthropologists generally specialise in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem (Levinson, 2011). The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenic, archaeological and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs (Raz, 1979). This is important for citizenship education which is also important for democratic development.

Other social science disciplines such as development studies, environmental planning and management studies are all crucial for democratic consolidation. Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of the social sciences which addresses a range of social and economic issues related to developing low-income countries such as Ghana. Environmental planning explores the decision-making processes for managing relationships within and between human systems and natural systems, in order to manage these processes in an effective, transparent and equitable manner. Management and business studies explores a wide range of aspects relating to the activities and management of business, such as strategic and operational management, organisational psychology, employment relations, marketing, accounting, finance and logistics. Academics and students from these fields play a crucial role in the current democratic dispensation as advisors, legislators and development workers in both the public service and also as policy makers.

Science and technology studies are concerned with what scientists do, what their role is in our society, the history and culture of science, and the policies and debates that shape our modern scientific and technological world. Knowledge in this area is needed to inform policy and to create a synergy between the sciences and the social science. Communication studies deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning. Communication studies also examine how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic and social dimensions of their contexts. This is important in the socialisation process and citizenship education which are critical in democratic consolidation.

5. Conclusion

It could be seen from the discussion supra that, the social sciences are in the forefront of the consolidation of the present democratic dispensation in Ghana. They not only align themselves and their programmes with national development, but also press for a greater role in the policy making process, and also take a more active interest in the implementation of their research which is usually used by industry. Again, citizenship education, socialisation of new members on societal norms, values and civics consequently aids the democratic consolidation process in the country. From the foregoing it could be stated categorically and emphatically that, without the social scientist it will be impossible to consolidate our fledgling democracy which was started on 7th January, 1993, since they play a crucial role in policy making, reforms and the whole development process. It is recommended among others that, institutions of higher learning that offer courses under the Social Sciences should have introductory courses that cover civic culture, democratic norms and respect for the rule of law to build the capacity of learners on democratic values. This will invariably enhance the performance of graduates after school in their future roles of ensuring transparency, accountability and participation in decision-making to aid the consolidation of democracy.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed to this research.

Funding: Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent Statement/Ethics Approval: Not applicable.